Conversion of ethane to ethylene

ABSTRACT

Methods of converting ethane to ethylene at relatively low temperatures are described. IrO 2 -based catalysts are used in the conversion. Methods of converting a base gas to a first gas by exposing the base gas to an IrO 2 -based catalyst and forming the first gas are described. The base gas can be an alkane. The first gas can include an alkene, an alkyne, an alcohol, an aldehyde, or combinations thereof.

CLAIM OF PRIORITY TO RELATED APPLICATION

This application is a continuation of U.S. application entitled “Conversion of Ethane to Ethylene” having Ser. No. 16/959,325 filed on Jun. 30, 2020, which application is the 35 U.S.C. § 371 national stage of PCT application having serial number PCT/US2019/014114, filed on Jan. 18, 2019. The PCT application also claims the benefit of and priority to U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 62/747,359, having the title “CONVERSION OF ETHANE TO ETHYLENE”, filed on Oct. 18, 2018, and further claims the benefit of and priority to U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 62/618,813, having the title “CONVERSION OF ETHANE TO ETHYLENE”, filed on Jan. 18, 2018 the disclosure of each of which is incorporated herein by reference in their entireties.

GOVERNMENT FUNDING

This invention was made with Government support under DE-FG02-03ER15478 awarded by the Department of Energy. The Government has certain rights in this invention.

BACKGROUND

Developing catalysts that can directly convert ethane to ethylene is gaining increasing interest due to the availability of light alkanes from shale gas as well as the increasing demand for ethylene. However, the catalysts that have been investigated to date do not achieve sufficient activity and selectivity to be utilized at the industrial scale.

SUMMARY

Embodiments of the present disclosure provide for methods of converting a base gas to a first gas by exposing the base gas to an IrO₂-based catalyst and forming the first gas. The base gas can be an alkane. The first gas can include an alkene, an alkyne, an alcohol, an aldehyde, or combinations thereof.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Many aspects of the present disclosure can be better understood with reference to the following drawings. The components in the drawings are not necessarily to scale, with emphasis instead being placed upon clearly illustrating the principles of the disclosure. Moreover, in the drawings, like reference numerals designate corresponding parts throughout the several views.

FIGS. 1A-1B provide examples of TPRS spectra of C₂H₆, C₂H₄, CO, CO₂ and H₂O obtained after adsorbing C₂H₆ on IrO₂(110) at 90 K to reach initial C₂H₆ coverages of (FIG. 1A) 0.11 ML and (FIG. 1B) 0.27 ML.

FIG. 2 is an example of TPRS product yields as a function of the initial coverage of C₂H₆ adsorbed on IrO₂(110) at 90 K, including the initial coverage of C₂H₆ σ-complexes (desorbed+reacted), the reacted yield of C₂H₆, the C₂H₄ yield and the yield of ethane that oxidizes (0.5*CO_(x)).

FIG. 3A is an example showing TPRS traces of m/z=27 and 44 obtained after adsorbing ˜0.14 ML of C₂H₆ at 90 K on a (nominally) clean IrO₂(110) surface (blue) and an IrO₂(110) surface with a hydrogen pre-coverage of 0.32 ML (red). The 27 and 44 amu traces are represented by thick vs. thin lines. FIG. 3B shows the total reacted C₂H₆ yield, oxidized C₂H₆ yield (0.5*CO_(x)) and C₂H₄ yield obtained as a function of the hydrogen pre-coverage during TPRS for a C₂H₆ coverage of ˜0.13 ML.

FIGS. 4A-4B show examples of energy pathways for the dehydrogenation of C₂H₆ adsorbed on IrO₂(110) as computed using DFT-D3 for surfaces initially containing (FIG. 4A) zero and (FIG. 4B) two HO_(br) groups. The final reaction step compares the energy changes for C₂H₄ desorption (red) vs. dehydrogenation to a C₂H₃(ad) species (black). A comparison of the energetics for these pathways with and without D3 can be found in Table 1.

FIG. 5 is a model representation of top and side view of stoichiometric IrO₂(110) structure. The red and blue atoms represent O and Ir atoms, respectively. Rows of Ir_(cus), Ir_(6f), O_(br), O_(3f) along the [001] crystallographic direction are indicated. The unit cell dimensions a and b are parallel to the [001] and [110] directions of the IrO₂ crystal.

FIGS. 6A-6D TPRS are examples of spectra obtained after adsorbing C₂H₆ on IrO₂(110) at 90 K to generate coverages of 0.05, 0.11, 0.18, 0.22, 0.27, 0.36 and 0.49 ML. TPRS traces are shown for (FIG. 6A) m/z=27, (FIG. 6B) m/z=28, (FIG. 6C) m/z=29 and (FIG. 6D) m/z=44 and the features arising from specific compounds are labeled.

FIGS. 7A-7B are examples of TPRS spectra obtained after exposing IrO₂(110) to a) 0.8 L and b) 1.5 L of C₂H₄ at 90 K.

FIGS. 8A-8D are models of the top and side view of ethane adsorbed on IrO₂(110) in (FIG. 8A) 2η¹ (staggered) (FIG. 8B) 2η¹ (eclipsed) (FIG. 8C) η² bridge and (FIG. 8D) η¹ top with a PBE (PBE-D3) binding energies of 53.7 (107.3), 44.3 (98.9), 14.4 (46.9), 39.9 (79.5) kJ/mol, respectively. The 2η¹ configurations shown in FIGS. 8A and 8B have no imaginary frequencies and thus correspond to minima in the potential energy surface, whereas the configurations shown in 8C and 8D each have one imaginary frequency, indicating that these structures occur at saddle points on the potential energy surface.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Before the present disclosure is described in greater detail, it is to be understood that this disclosure is not limited to particular embodiments described, as such may, of course, vary. It is also to be understood that the terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only, and is not intended to be limiting, since the scope of the present disclosure will be limited only by the appended claims.

Where a range of values is provided, it is understood that each intervening value, to the tenth of the unit of the lower limit (unless the context clearly dictates otherwise), between the upper and lower limit of that range, and any other stated or intervening value in that stated range, is encompassed within the disclosure. The upper and lower limits of these smaller ranges may independently be included in the smaller ranges and are also encompassed within the disclosure, subject to any specifically excluded limit in the stated range. Where the stated range includes one or both of the limits, ranges excluding either or both of those included limits are also included in the disclosure.

Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this disclosure belongs. Although any methods and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can also be used in the practice or testing of the present disclosure, the preferred methods and materials are now described.

As will be apparent to those of skill in the art upon reading this disclosure, each of the individual embodiments described and illustrated herein has discrete components and features which may be readily separated from or combined with the features of any of the other several embodiments without departing from the scope or spirit of the present disclosure. Any recited method can be carried out in the order of events recited or in any other order that is logically possible.

Embodiments of the present disclosure will employ, unless otherwise indicated, techniques of chemistry, inorganic chemistry, material science, and the like, which are within the skill of the art. Such techniques are explained fully in the literature.

The following examples are put forth so as to provide those of ordinary skill in the art with a complete disclosure and description of how to perform the methods and use the compositions and compounds disclosed and claimed herein. Efforts have been made to ensure accuracy with respect to numbers (e.g., amounts, temperature, etc.), but some errors and deviations should be accounted for. Unless indicated otherwise, parts are parts by weight, temperature is in ° C., and pressure is in atmosphere. Standard temperature and pressure are defined as 25° C. and 1 atmosphere.

Before the embodiments of the present disclosure are described in detail, it is to be understood that, unless otherwise indicated, the present disclosure is not limited to particular materials, reagents, reaction materials, manufacturing processes, or the like, as such can vary. It is also to be understood that the terminology used herein is for purposes of describing particular embodiments only, and is not intended to be limiting. It is also possible in the present disclosure that steps can be executed in different sequence where this is logically possible.

It must be noted that, as used in the specification and the appended claims, the singular forms “a,” “an,” and “the” include plural referents unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Thus, for example, reference to “a support” includes a plurality of supports. In this specification and in the claims that follow, reference will be made to a number of terms that shall be defined to have the following meanings unless a contrary intention is apparent.

As used herein, “alkane” refers to a saturated aliphatic hydrocarbon which can be straight or branched, having 1 to 40, 1 to 20, 1 to 10, or 1 to 5 carbon atoms, where the stated range of carbon atoms includes each intervening integer individually, as well as sub-ranges. Examples of alkane include, but are not limited to methane, ethane, propane, butane, pentane, and the like. Reference to “alkane” includes unsubstituted and substituted forms of the hydrocarbon.

As used herein, “alkyne” refers to straight or branched chain hydrocarbon groups having 2 to 40, 2 to 20, 2 to 10, or 2 to 5 carbon atoms and at least one triple carbon to carbon bond. Reference to “alkyne” includes unsubstituted and substituted forms of the hydrocarbon. As used herein, “alkene” refers to an aliphatic hydrocarbon which can be straight or branched, containing at least one carbon-carbon double bond, having 2 to 40, 2 to 20, 2 to 10, or 2 to 5 carbon atoms, where the stated range of carbon atoms includes each intervening integer individually, as well as sub-ranges. Examples of alkene groups include, but are not limited to, ethene, propene, and the like.

As used herein, “alcohol” refers to a R—OH, where R can be alkyl group. An alkyl group refers to a straight or branched moiety, having 1 to 40, 1 to 20, 1 to 10, or 1 to 5 carbon atoms, where the stated range of carbon atoms includes each intervening integer individually, as well as sub-ranges. Examples of alcohol include, but are not limited to methanol, ethanol, propanol, butane, pentanol, and the like. Reference to “alcohol” includes unsubstituted and substituted forms of the alcohol.

As used herein, “aldehyde” refers to a R(O)H, where R can be alkyl group. An alkyl group refers to a straight or branched moiety, having 1 to 40, 1 to 20, 1 to 10, or 1 to 5 carbon atoms, where the stated range of carbon atoms includes each intervening integer individually, as well as sub-ranges. Examples of aldehyde include, but are not limited to formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, propionaldehyde, butyraldehyde, and the like. Reference to “aldehyde” includes unsubstituted and substituted forms of the aldehyde.

Discussion

Embodiments of the present disclosure provide for methods of converting alkanes (e.g., ethane) to a first gas (e.g., an alkene, an alkyne, an alcohol, an aldehyde, or a combination thereof), systems, catalysts, and the like.

Current industrial practice is to use the so-called steam-cracking process to produce ethylene from ethane. In the steam-cracking process, the ethane reactant is diluted in steam and heated to high temperature (˜800° C.) to promote ethane pyrolysis. Steam-cracking is highly energy intensive and produces large quantities of CO and CO₂ as byproducts. Equipment costs and maintenance are also substantial. A catalytic process that can efficiently and selectively convert ethane to ethylene at lower temperature would have significant economic and environmental benefits.

Developing efficient methods for directly converting ethane to ethylene has gained increasing interest due to the availability of shale gas and the increasing demand for ethylene. Ethylene is produced and sold in the largest quantities among all products generated by the petrochemical industry. Realizing the efficient and selective conversion of ethane to ethylene is important for improving the utilization of hydrocarbon resources, yet remains a major challenge in catalysis. Catalysts that have been investigated to date are not sufficiently efficient and selective to be put into industrial practice for converting ethane to ethylene. The methods described in the present disclosure provide more efficient alternatives for generating ethylene from ethane.

Embodiments of the present disclosure provide for methods of converting a base gas to a first gas. The method includes exposing the base gas to an IrO₂-based catalyst and forming the first gas. The base gas can include a C1 to C8, or C1 to C6, or C1 to C5, or C1 to C4 alkane. In an example, the alkane can be methane, ethane, propane, and combinations thereof. For example, the base gas may be natural gas. The first gas can include a C1 to C8, or C1 to C6, or C1 to C5, or C1 to C4 alkene, a C1 to C8, or C1 to C6, or C1 to C5, or C1 to C4 alkyne, a C1 to C8, or C1 to C6, or C1 to C5, or C1 to C4 alcohol, a C1 to C8, or C1 to C6, or C1 to C5, or C1 to C4 aldehyde, or a combination thereof. In various embodiments, the base gas can be ethane or methane, while the first gas can include ethylene, methanol, formaldehyde, or combinations thereof.

In some embodiments, the IrO₂-based catalyst can be partially hydrogenated (e.g. can be pre-hydrogenated prior to exposure to the base gas). In various embodiments, the IrO₂-based catalyst can be IrO₂(110).

In an aspect, it was found that ethane forms strongly-bound sigma-complexes on the IrO₂(110) surface and that a large fraction of the complexes undergo C—H bond cleavage at temperatures below 200 K during temperature programmed reaction spectroscopy (TPRS) experiments. It was found that continued heating causes as much as 40% of the dissociated ethane to dehydrogenate and desorb as ethylene near 350 K, with the remainder oxidizing to CO and CO₂. It was also determined that partial hydrogenation of the IrO₂(110) surface enhances ethylene production from ethane while suppressing oxidation to CO_(x) species. These experiments reveal that IrO₂(110) exhibits an exceptional ability to promote ethane dehydrogenation to ethylene just above room temperature, and demonstrate that controlled prehydrogenation of the IrO₂(110) surface is an effective approach for increasing selectivity toward ethane conversion to ethylene rather than CO and CO₂.

Prehydrogenation, as described herein, is attained via the following process. First, H₂ is adsorbed on the IrO₂(110) surface at 90 K and then heated to 380 K. The H₂ exposure to the surface can be varied to control the H surface concentration. Heating to 380 K has two effects: it increases the quantity of surface OH groups and also causes H atoms to vacate the Ir sites needed for alkane adsorption and activation. The H₂ dissociation process may be represented as H₂—Ir+0 to H-Ir+OH. Heating causes the following: H-Ir+0 to Ir+OH Lastly, the temperature is limited to 380 K to avoid reduction of the surface via 20H to H₂O(g). The precise adsorption temperature (90 K) is not critical and neither is heating. However, the heating step helps achieve a more desirable surface in which a large fraction of Ir atoms are vacant and the majority of the surface H-atoms are bound to O-atoms, giving OH groups.

In various embodiments, the base gas (such as an alkane) can be exposed to an IrO₂-based catalyst at a temperature of about 90 to 500 K, about 200 to 400 K, or about 350 K. Our work shows that the IrO₂(110) surface activates ethane C—H bonds at temperatures below 200 K, and that a large portion of the dissociated ethane dehydrogenates and desorbs as ethylene at temperatures of about 300 to 450 K. Selectivity toward ethylene production during TPRS increases with increasing initial ethane coverage. No other material is capable of achieving ethane to ethylene conversion at these low temperatures and with the efficiency realized on IrO₂(110). The discovery of this efficient chemical transformation has potential to serve as the basis for developing IrO₂-based catalysts that can directly and efficiently promote the conversion of ethane to ethylene. The successful development of such a process for industrial application would have transformative impact on the commercial production of ethylene. The economic benefits could be enormous.

Nearly 40% of the adsorbed ethane converts to ethylene during TPRS when the ethane layer is initially saturated.

DFT calculations confirm that “bridging” HO groups of the IrO₂(110) surface are effectively inactive as H-atom acceptors, and that conversion of surface bridging-O atoms to HO groups hinders extensive dehydrogenation of adsorbed ethane-derived species and promotes ethylene desorption.

Polycrystalline and nanoparticle forms of IrO₂ and IrO₂ surface facets will promote facile ethane dehydrogenation and conversion to ethylene. This discovery demonstrates that pairs of coordinatively unsaturated (cus) Ir and O atoms at the surface are needed to achieve the observed reactivity on IrO₂(110). Such sites are present on the surface of other forms of IrO₂.

In some embodiments, the IrO₂-based catalyst can have the formula Ir_(x)M_(y)O_(z), where M is selected from Ru, Ti, Re, Nb, Ta, Os, Pt, Pd, Cu, Ag, Au, Rh, Cr, Mn, Ni, Fe, Co or a combination thereof, and where z is between 1 and 2 and x+y≤1. Mixed oxides that include IrO₂ moieties will promote facile ethane dehydrogenation and conversion to ethylene, including solid oxide solutions in which Ir atoms and a second metal cation (M) are present on separate cation lattice sites of the oxide structure in a range of compositions.

In some embodiments, the IrO₂ based catalyst can have the formula Ir_(x)O_(y)X_(z), where X is selected from F, Cl, Br, I, S, Se, Te, or a combination thereof, wherein x≤1 and y+z is between 1 and 2. IrO₂ deposited onto another metal oxide (e.g. SiO₂, Al₂O₃, TiO₂, MgO, CaO, CeO₂, zeolites or a combination thereof), referred to as a support oxide, or various non-oxide support materials (e.g. carbon) will promote facile ethane dehydrogenation and conversion to ethylene. Anion-substituted, solid mixtures of the form Ir_(x)O_(y)X_(z) will promote facile ethane dehydrogenation and conversion to ethylene, where X represents an element that replaces a fraction of the O-atoms in the anion sub-lattice.

Various forms of IrO₂, as listed above, are able to promote the selective dehydrogenation and oxidation of methane to desirable organic products, including but not limited to ethylene, methanol and formaldehyde.

Various forms of IrO₂, as listed above, are able to promote the selective dehydrogenation and oxidation of higher alkanes in pure form and mixtures to generate desirable organic products, including but not limited to alkenes, alkynes, alcohols, aldehydes and other value-added species (e.g., ketones, esters, ethers and organic acids).

Various forms of IrO₂, as listed above, can promote the steady-state, selective dehydrogenation and oxidation of alkanes, including methane, ethane and higher alkanes, to value-added products. Mixtures of the alkane(s) of interest and O₂ can be continuously fed to a reactor containing the IrO₂-based catalyst, and continuously produce value-added products.

EXAMPLES

Now having described the embodiments of the disclosure, in general, the examples describe some additional embodiments. While embodiments of the present disclosure are described in connection with the example and the corresponding text and figures, there is no intent to limit embodiments of the disclosure to these descriptions. On the contrary, the intent is to cover all alternatives, modifications, and equivalents included within the spirit and scope of embodiments of the present disclosure.

Example 1

Realizing the efficient and selective conversion of ethane to ethylene is important for improving the utilization of hydrocarbon resources, yet remains a major challenge in catalysis. Herein, ethane dehydrogenation on the IrO₂(110) surface is investigated using temperature programmed reaction spectroscopy (TPRS) and density functional theory (DFT) calculations. The results show that ethane forms strongly-bound σ-complexes on IrO₂(110) and that a large fraction of the complexes undergo C—H bond cleavage during TPRS at temperatures below 200 K. Continued heating causes as much as 40% of the dissociated ethane to dehydrogenate and desorb as ethylene near 350 K, with the remainder oxidizing to CO_(x) species. Both TPRS and DFT show that ethylene desorption is the rate-controlling step in the conversion of ethane to ethylene on IrO₂(110) during TPRS. Partial hydrogenation of the IrO₂(110) surface is found to enhance ethylene production from ethane while suppressing oxidation to CO_(x) species. DFT predicts that hydrogenation of reactive oxygen atoms of the IrO₂(110) surface effectively deactivates these sites as H-atom acceptors, and causes ethylene desorption to become favored over further dehydrogenation and oxidation of ethane-derived species. The study reveals that IrO₂(110) exhibits an exceptional ability to promote ethane dehydrogenation to ethylene near room temperature, and provides molecular-level insights for understanding how surface properties influence selectivity toward ethylene production.

Introduction

Developing catalysts that can directly convert ethane to ethylene is gaining increasing interest due to the availability of light alkanes from shale gas as well as the increasing demand for ethylene. The oxidative dehydrogenation (ODH) of ethane offers advantages over non-oxidative processes and has been widely studied.¹⁻³ The ODH of ethane occurs in the presence of oxygen and involves the dehydrogenation of ethane to ethylene with concurrent oxidation of the released hydrogen to water. The latter step makes the ODH of ethane an exothermic process for which high conversion is thermodynamically favored at low temperature. Furthermore, the presence of oxygen in the reactant stream minimizes catalyst deactivation by coking which can be a significant problem in non-oxidative routes for ethane dehydrogenation. Various metal oxides as well as alkali chlorides are effective in promoting the ODH of ethane and propane, with VO_(x)-based catalysts generally exhibiting the most favorable performance.¹⁻⁹ However, the catalysts that have been investigated to date do not achieve sufficient activity and selectivity to be utilized at the industrial scale.

Initial C—H bond cleavage is widely accepted as the rate-controlling step in the ODH of ethane, and more generally in the catalytic processing of light alkanes.¹ This situation presents a challenge in developing catalysts that can selectively dehydrogenate ethane to ethylene because the reaction steps that follow initial C—H bond cleavage occur rapidly and can be difficult to control, particularly in the presence of oxygen. Recently, we have reported that CH₄ undergoes highly facile C—H bond activation on the IrO₂(110) surface at temperatures as low as 150 K.¹⁰ We find that methane adsorbs as a strongly-bound 6-complex on IrO₂(110) and that C—H bond cleavage occurs by a heterolytic pathway wherein the adsorbed complex transfers a H-atom to a lattice oxygen atom, thus affording adsorbed CH₃ and OH groups. Our results further show that the resulting methyl groups react with the IrO₂(110) surface via oxidation to CO_(x) and H₂O as well as recombination with adsorbed hydrogen to regenerate CH₄, with these products desorbing at temperatures above ˜400 K during temperature programmed reaction spectroscopy (TPRS) experiments.¹⁰ Key findings are that the initial C—H bond cleavage of CH₄ is highly facile and that subsequent reaction steps control the overall chemical transformations of methane on the IrO₂(110) surface. The ability of IrO₂(110) to activate alkane C—H bonds at low temperature may provide opportunities to develop catalysts that are capable of directly and efficiently transforming light alkanes to value-added products.

In the present example, we investigated the dehydrogenation of ethane on the IrO₂(110) surface. We find that initial C—H bond cleavage of C₂H₆ occurs efficiently on IrO₂(110) at low temperature (˜150 to 200 K) and that subsequent reaction produces C₂H₄ as well as CO_(x) species during TPRS, with the C₂H₄ product desorbing between 300 and 450 K. We demonstrate that partially hydrogenating the IrO₂(110) surface to convert a fraction of the surface O-atoms to OH groups enhances the conversion of C₂H₆ to C₂H₄ while suppressing extensive oxidation to CO_(x) species. Our findings show that the controlled deactivation of surface O-atoms is an effective means for promoting the selective conversion of ethane to ethylene on IrO₂(110) at low temperature.

Experimental Details

Details of the ultrahigh vacuum (UHV) analysis chamber with an isolatable ambient-pressure reaction cell utilized in the present study have been reported previously.¹⁰ Briefly, the Ir(100) crystal employed in this study is a circular disk (9 mm×1 mm) that is attached to a liquid-nitrogen-cooled, copper sample holder by 0.015″ W wires that are secured to the edge of crystal. A type K thermocouple was spot welded to the backside of the crystal for temperature measurements. Resistive heating, controlled using a PID controller that varies the output of a programmable DC power supply, supports linearly ramping from 80 to 1500 K and maintaining the sample temperature. Sample cleaning consisted of cycles of Ar⁺ sputtering (2000 eV, 15 mA) at 1000 K, followed by annealing at 1500 K for several minutes. The sample was subsequently exposed to 5×10⁻⁷ Torr of O₂ at 900 K for several minutes to remove surface carbon, followed by flashing to 1500 K to remove final traces of oxygen.

We generated an IrO₂(110) film by exposing Ir(100) to 5 Torr of O₂ (Airgas, 99.999%) for a duration of 10 minutes (3×10⁹ Langmuir) in the ambient-pressure reaction cell at a surface temperature of 765 K. Our ambient-pressure reaction cell is designed to reach elevated gas pressure while maintaining UHV in the analysis chamber.¹⁰ After preparation of the oxide film, we lowered the surface temperature to 600 K, and then evacuated O₂ from the reaction cell and transferred the sample back to the UHV analysis chamber. We exposed the film to ˜23 L O₂ while cycling the surface temperature between 300 and 650 K to fill oxygen vacancies that may be created during sample transfer from the reaction cell to the analysis chamber. This procedure produces a high-quality IrO₂(110) surface that has a stoichiometric surface termination, contains ˜40 ML of oxygen atoms and is about 3.2 nm thick.¹⁰⁻¹¹

The stoichiometric IrO₂(110) surface consists of parallel rows of fivefold coordinated Ir atoms and so-called bridging O atoms, each of which lacks a bonding partner relative to the bulk and is thus coordinatively unsaturated (cus). Hereafter, we refer to the fivefold coordinated Ir atoms as Ir_(cus) atoms and the bridging O-atoms as O_(br) atoms. On the basis of the IrO₂(110) unit cell, the areal density of Ir_(cus) atoms and O_(br) atoms is equal to 37% of the Ir(100) surface atom density of 1.36×10¹⁵ cm⁻². Since Ir_(cus) atoms are active adsorption sites, we define 1 ML as equal to the density of Ir_(cus) atoms on the IrO₂(110) surface.

We studied the adsorption of C₂H₆(Matheson, 99.999%) on clean and hydrogen pre-covered IrO₂(110) using TPRS. We delivered ethane to the sample from a calibrated beam doser at an incident flux of approximately 0.0064 ML/s with the sample-to-doser distance set to about 15 mm to ensure uniform impingement of ethane across the sample surface. We prepared hydrogen pre-covered IrO₂(110) by exposing the surface to varying quantities of H₂ at 90 K, followed by heating to 380 K. We have recently reported that this procedure enhances the concentration of HO_(br) groups by promoting the hopping of H-atoms on Ir_(cus) sites to O_(br).¹¹ We estimate that ˜0.075 to 0.15 ML of H₂ adsorbs from the vacuum background during cooling of the initially clean IrO₂(110) surface, prior to a TPRS experiment. We collected TPRS spectra after ethane exposures by positioning the sample in front of a shielded mass spectrometer at a distance of about 5 mm and then heating at a constant rate of 1 K/s until the sample temperature reached 800 K. To ensure consistency in the composition and structure of the IrO₂(110) layer, the surface was exposed to 23.3 L of O₂ supplied through a tube doser while cycling the surface temperature between 300 and 650 K after each TPRS experiment. Initially, we monitored a wide range of desorbing species to identify the main products that are generated from reactions of ethane on IrO₂(110), and found that the only desorbing species are C₂H₆, CO, CO₂, C₂H₄, CH₄ and H₂O. We quantified desorption yields using established procedures as described in the SI.

Computational Details

All plane wave DFT calculations were performed using the projector augmented wave pseudopotentials¹² provided in the Vienna ab initio simulation package (VASP).¹³⁻¹⁴ The Perdew-Burke-Ernzerhof (PBE) exchange-correlation functional was used with a plane wave expansion cutoff of 450 eV. Dispersion interactions are modeled using the DFT-D3 method developed by Grimme et al.¹⁶ We find that this method provides accurate estimates of the adsorption energies of n-alkanes on PdO(101)¹⁷ and RuO₂(110)¹⁸ in comparison with TPD-derived values; however, the DFT-D3 calculations overestimate the adsorption energy of methane on IrO₂(110).¹⁰ We find that DFT-D3 calculations using the PBE functional also overestimate the binding energies of C₂H₄ and C₂H₆ on IrO₂(110). We compare the results of DFT-PBE calculations performed with and without dispersion corrections in Table 1, and note that the predictions from both methods support the conclusions of this study. We employed four layers to model the IrO₂(110) film, resulting in an ˜12 Å thick slab with an additional 25 Å vacuum to avoid spurious interactions normal to the surface. The PBE bulk lattice constant of IrO₂ (a=4.54 Å and c=3.19 Å) is used to fix the lateral dimensions of the slab. The bottom two layers are fixed, but all other lattice atoms are allowed to relax during the calculations until the forces are less than 0.05 eV/Å. A 2×4 unit cell with a corresponding 2×2×1 Monkhorst-Pack k-point mesh is used. In the present study, we define the binding energy, E_(b), of an adsorbed C₂H₆ molecule on the surface using the expression, E _(b)=(E _(C) ₂ _(H) ₆ +E _(surf))−E _(C) ₂ _(H) ₆ _(/surf) where E_(C) ₂ _(H) ₆ _(/surf) is the energy of the state containing the adsorbed C₂H₆ molecule, E_(surf) is the energy of the bare surface, and E_(C) ₂ _(H) ₆ is the energy of an isolated C₂H₆ molecule in the gas phase. All reported binding energies are corrected for zero-point vibrational energy. From the equation above, a large positive value for the binding energy indicates a high stability of the adsorbed C₂H₆ molecule under consideration. We evaluated the barriers for C₂H₆ dehydrogenation on the IrO₂(110) surface using the climbing nudged elastic band (cNEB) method.¹⁹ Our DFT calculations were performed for a single C₂H₆ molecule adsorbed within the 2×4 surface model of IrO₂(110), and corresponds to an C₂H₆ coverage equal to 12.5% of the total density of Ir_(cus) atoms and 25% of the Ir_(cus) density within one Ir_(cus) row. Results and Discussion TPRS of C₂H₆ Adsorbed on IrO₂(110)

Our TPRS results show that the IrO₂(110) surface is highly reactive toward ethane as more than 90% of the C₂H₆ adsorbed on IrO₂(110) oxidizes to CO, CO₂ and H₂O during TPRS at low initial C₂H₆ coverages (FIG. 1A). The CO₂ and CO products desorb in TPRS peaks centered at 525 and 550 K, while H₂O desorbs over a broader feature spanning temperatures from ˜400 to 750 K. We also observe a small C₂H₆ TPRS peak at 110 K that arises from weakly-bound, molecularly-adsorbed C₂H₆, likely associated with a minority surface phase.

At high initial C₂H₆ coverages, a fraction of the adsorbed C₂H₆ dehydrogenates to produce C₂H₄ in addition to undergoing extensive oxidation to CO and CO₂ (FIG. 1 b ). Ethylene desorption accounts for about 38% of the total amount of C₂H₆ that reacts during TPRS at saturation of the initial C₂H₆ layer. The C₂H₄ TPRS feature resulting from C₂H₆ dehydrogenation on IrO₂(110) exhibits a maximum at 350 K and a shoulder centered at ˜425 K, and most of the C₂H₄ desorbs at lower temperature than the CO and CO₂ products. Assuming maximum values of the desorption pre-factors (5.6×10¹⁸, 1.1×10¹⁹ s⁻¹), we estimate that the C₂H₄ peak temperatures of 350 and 425 K correspond to C₂H₄ binding energies of 132 and 162 kJ/mol, respectively. Prior studies show that maximum desorption pre-factors are appropriate for describing the desorption of small hydrocarbons from TiO₂(110) and RuO₂(110) surfaces,^(18, 20) where the pre-factors are computed using a model based on transition state theory.²¹ We have performed TPRS experiments following C₂H₄ adsorption on IrO₂(110), and find that C₂H₄ desorbs in a broad feature spanning temperatures from ˜150 to 500 K. The breadth of this TPRS feature likely reflects a sensitivity of the C₂H₄ binding energy and configuration(s) to the local environment. Because the C₂H₄ TPRS feature resulting from C₂H₆ dehydrogenation desorbs over a similar temperature range as C₂H₄ adsorbed on IrO₂(110), we conclude that C₂H₄ production from C₂H₆ on IrO₂(110) is a desorption-limited process.

A new C₂H₆ TPRS feature centered at 185 K emerges after the TPRS features generated by the CO, CO₂, C₂H₄, H₂O products first saturate at a total C₂H₆ coverage near 0.20 ML (SI), with this TPRS feature developing two maxima at ˜150 and 175 K as its desorption yield begins to saturate (FIG. 1B). The C₂H₆ TPRS peak at 110 K grows only slowly as the total C₂H₆ coverage increases to about 0.35 ML, but a separate peak at 120 K intensifies sharply thereafter (FIG. 6 ). The C₂H₆ TPRS feature at 150-185 K is consistent with the desorption of relatively strongly-bound C₂H₆ σ-complexes adsorbed on the Ir_(cus) atoms of IrO₂(110). Using Redhead analysis with a maximum value of the desorption pre-factor (5.9×10¹⁷ s⁻¹), we predict a binding energy of 65 kJ/mol for the C₂H₆ TPRS peak at 185 K. We also estimate a saturation coverage of ˜0.30 ML for C₂H₆ σ-complexes on IrO₂(110), based on the amount of C₂H₆ that desorbs above ˜135 K plus the total amount that reacts. Our estimate agrees to within about 20% of the saturation coverage of C₂H₆ σ-complexes on RuO₂(110).¹⁸ Because the σ-complexes serve as dissociation precursors (see below), our TPRS results reveal that C₂H₆ C—H bond cleavage occurs readily on IrO₂(110) at temperatures between ˜150 and 200 K, i.e., in the same range as desorption of the C₂H₆ σ-complexes. We are unaware of other materials that exhibit such high activity toward promoting the C—H bond activation of C₂H₆.

We have recently shown that IrO₂(110) is exceptionally active in promoting CH₄ C—H bond cleavage at temperatures as low as 150 K.¹⁰ The present results demonstrate a similarly high reactivity of IrO₂(110) toward C₂H₆ activation. Our prior study shows that CH₄ initially adsorbs on Ir_(cus) atoms and undergoes C—H bond cleavage by a heterolytic pathway involving H-atom transfer to a neighboring O_(br) atom, producing CH₃—Ir_(cus) and HO_(br) groups. We found that the energy barrier for CH₄ bond cleavage is nearly 10 kJ/mol lower than the binding energy of the CH₄ σ-complex, resulting in near unit dissociation probability for CH₄ on IrO₂(110) at low temperature and coverage. The resulting CH₃ groups are oxidized by the surface to CO, CO₂ and H₂O that desorb in TPRS features that are similar to those observed in the present study for C₂H₆ oxidation on IrO₂(110). This similarity suggests that common reaction steps control the rates of CO, CO₂ and H₂O production during the oxidation of CH₄ and C₂H₆ on IrO₂(110), after initial C—H bond cleavage. We previously reported that CH₄ oxidation to CO, CO₂ and H₂O is favored at low CH₄ coverage, but that recombinative desorption of CH₄ competes with oxidation at higher initial CH₄ coverage.¹⁰ Our current results demonstrate that C₂H₆ also preferentially oxidizes during TPRS when the initial C₂H₆ coverage is sufficiently low. A key difference is that C₂H₆ dehydrogenates to C₂H₄ on IrO₂(110) at high initial C₂H₆ coverage rather than recombinatively desorbing, and generates C₂H₄ at relatively low temperature (˜300 to 450 K).

We show below that the coverage of HO_(br) groups plays a decisive role in determining the branching between C₂H₆ oxidation and C₂H₄ production. The proposed steps for C₂H₆ activation and subsequent dehydrogenation on IrO₂(110) are the following, Initial C₂H₆ dissociation vs. desorption: C₂H₆(ad)→C₂H₆(g) C₂H₆(ad)+O_(br)→C₂H₅(ad)+HO_(br) C₂H₅ dehydrogenation: C₂H₅(ad)+O_(br)→C₂H₄(ad)+HO_(br) C₂H₄ dehydrogenation vs. desorption: C₂H₄(ad)+O_(br)→C₂H₃(ad)+HO_(br) C₂H₄(ad)→C₂H₄(g) Ethane initially adsorbs in a molecular state C₂H₆(ad) and forms a σ-complex by datively bonding with Ir_(cus) atoms, and a competition between dissociation and desorption of the C₂H₆(ad) species determines the net probability of initial C—H bond cleavage. Our TPRS results show that dissociation of the C₂H₆(ad) species is strongly favored over desorption at low C₂H₆ coverages. Since dissociation of the C₂H₆(ad) species requires an O_(br) atom, a decrease in the coverage of O_(br) atoms via conversion to HO_(br) groups may be mainly responsible for C₂H₆ dissociation reaching saturation during TPRS beyond a critical C₂H₆ coverage. After initial dissociation, the resulting C₂H5(ad) species can dehydrogenate to C₂H₄(ad) species, and the C₂H₄(ad) species can either desorb or further dehydrogenate via H-atom transfer to an O_(br) atom. Again, the coverage of O_(br) atoms decreases with increasing C₂H₆ coverage because an increasing fraction of the O_(br) atoms is converted to HO_(br) groups via dehydrogenation of the C₂H₆-derived species. According to the proposed reaction steps, C₂H₄ desorption should become favored as the O_(br) atom coverage decreases. Product Yields as a Function of the C₂H₆ Coverage FIG. 2 shows the initial and reacted TPRS yields of C₂H₆ σ-complexes as a function of the initial C₂H₆ coverage on IrO₂(110) as well as the yields of C₂H₆ that converts to C₂H₄ vs. oxidizing to CO_(x) species. We set the total reacted yield of C₂H₆ equal to the sum of the C₂H₄ yield plus one half of the yield of CO+CO₂, where the factor of one half converts the CO_(x) yield to the amount of C₂H₆ that oxidizes, and we define the initial amount of C₂H₆ 6-complexes as equal to the reacted C₂H₆ yield plus the amount of C₂H₆ that desorbs in the TPRS feature above ˜135 K. Our results show that 90 to 100% of the strongly-bound C₂H₆ reacts during TPRS as the C₂H₆ coverage increases to ˜0.25 ML, at which point the yield of reacted C₂H₆ begins to plateau toward a value of 0.20 ML and the yield of C₂H₆ σ-complexes that desorb concurrently increases. The reacted C₂H₆ yield corresponds to about 67% of the adsorbed C₂H₆ complexes at saturation. Our results demonstrate that a large quantity of C₂H₆ reacts on IrO₂(110) during TPRS, and thus support the conclusion that initial C—H activation and subsequent reaction occur on the crystalline terraces of IrO₂(110).

Our results further show that C₂H₆ oxidation is strongly favored at low coverage, and that C₂H₄ production initiates at moderate coverage as the CO_(x) yield begins to saturate. The yield of oxidized ethane increases nearly to saturation with increasing C₂H₆ coverage to about 0.15 ML, and thereafter plateaus at a value of about 0.12 ML. Ethylene production first becomes evident at a C₂H₆ coverage above 0.10 ML and increases toward a plateau value as the total C₂H₆ coverage rises to ˜0.30 ML. The maximum C₂H₄ yield is equal to 0.08 ML at saturation of the C₂H₆ σ-complexes, and represents a large fraction (˜38%) of the C₂H₆ that reacts on IrO₂(110). The evolution of the product yields with the C₂H₆ coverage suggests that the availability of O_(br) atoms plays a decisive role in determining the reaction pathways that adsorbed C₂H₆ molecules can access on IrO₂(110). Notably, our current results show that the CO_(x) yield saturates at an O_(br):C₂H6 ratio close to five; however, the actual minimum O_(br):C₂H6 ratio needed to promote C₂H₆ oxidation to CO_(x) may be less than five because background H₂ adsorption converts ˜0.15 to 0.25 ML of the initial O_(br) atoms to HO_(br) groups prior to the C₂H₆ TPRS experiment.

Enhanced Selectivity for C₂H₄ Production on H-Covered IrO₂(110)

We find that the selectivity toward C₂H₄ production from C₂H₆ can be enhanced by pre-hydrogenating the IrO₂(110) surface. FIG. 3A compares TPRS traces of the 27 and 44 amu fragments obtained after adsorbing ˜0.14 ML of C₂H₆ on clean IrO₂(110) vs. an IrO₂(110) surface with an estimated H-atom pre-coverage of 0.32 ML. The 27 amu TPRS trace exhibits well-separated features arising from C₂H₆ and C₂H₄, and the 44 amu feature alone is sufficient for representing the change in CO_(x) production because surface hydrogenation causes similar changes in the CO and CO₂ TPRS features.

Our results show that pre-hydrogenating the surface to a moderate extent (<˜0.4 ML) causes the CO₂ TPRS peak to diminish, while the C₂H₄ TPRS feature intensifies and skews toward lower temperature, with the maximum shifting from 445 to 350 K. Pre-hydrogenation also causes a C₂H₆ TPRS peak at ˜175 K to gain intensity, whereas this peak is negligible after generating a moderate C₂H₆ coverage on clean IrO₂(110) (SI). These changes show that pre-hydrogenating IrO₂(110) suppresses C₂H₆ oxidation to CO_(x) species but enhances C₂H₄ production when the H-atom pre-coverage is moderate. The concurrent increase in the C₂H₆ TPRS peak at 175 K correlates with the decrease in CO_(x) TPRS yields, and thus demonstrates that surface pre-hydrogenation causes a fraction of the adsorbed C₂H₆ σ-complexes to desorb rather than oxidize. This behavior provides further evidence that adsorbed C₂H₆ σ-complexes serve as precursors to reaction and that dissociation involves H-atom transfer to O_(br) atoms.

FIG. 3B shows how the total TPRS yield of reacted C₂H₆ as well as the yields of the C₂H₄ and CO_(x) reaction products evolve as a function of the initial H-atom coverage on IrO₂(110), for an initial C₂H₆ coverage of 0.13±0.015 ML. We estimate that the nominally clean IrO₂(110) surface was covered by ˜0.15 ML of H-atoms prior to ethane adsorption. Our results show that the total yield of reacted C₂H₆ decreases monotonically with increasing H-atom pre-coverage, indicating that initially converting O_(br) atoms to HO_(br) groups suppresses C₂H₆ activation on IrO₂(110). The CO_(x) yield decreases sharply and continuously from a value of 0.11 to 0.01 ML as the H-atom coverage increases to about 1 ML. In contrast, however, the C₂H₄ yield increases from ˜0.03 to 0.045 ML with increasing H-atom coverage to ˜0.32 ML, and thereafter decreases, reaching a final value of 0.005 ML at saturation of the initial H-atom layer. These changes represent a nearly threefold increase in the selectivity for C₂H₄ production, as measured by the ratio of ethane that converts to ethylene vs CO_(x) species. The C₂H₄ yield begins to fall below its value on the (nominally) clean IrO₂(110) surface when the initial H-atom coverage starts to exceed 0.5 ML. The evolution of product yields with increasing H-coverage demonstrates that O_(br) atoms are needed to promote the initial C—H activation of C₂H₆ on IrO₂(110) as well as further dehydrogenation and that the controlled deactivation of O_(br) atoms by hydrogenation provides a means to enhance reaction selectivity to favor the conversion of ethane to ethylene.

Pathways for C₂H₆ Dehydrogenation on IrO₂(110)

We examined several possible C₂H₆ adsorption configurations (FIGS. 8A-8D) and predict that C₂H₆ forms a strongly-bound σ-complex on IrO₂(110) by adopting a flat-lying geometry along the Ir_(cus) row in which each CH₃ group forms a H—Ir_(cus) dative bond (a 2η¹ configuration) and the C₂H₆ molecule effectively occupies two Ir_(cus) sites. This staggered 2η¹ configuration is similar to that predicted by Pham et al. but they report an eclipsed C₂H₆ 2η¹ configuration,²² which we find to be less stable than the staggered configuration by ˜9 kJ/mol (FIGS. 8A-8D). We have previously reported that C₂H₆ complexes on PdO(101) and RuO₂(110) also preferentially adopt the 2η¹ configuration.^(18,23-24)

FIG. 4A shows the energy diagram computed using DFT-D3 for the sequential dehydrogenation of C₂H₆ to C₂H₄ on IrO₂(110), followed by either C₂H₄ desorption (red) or C₂H₄ dehydrogenation to adsorbed C₂H₃. DFT-D3 predicts that the 2η¹ C₂H₆ complex achieves a binding energy of 107 kJ/mol on clean IrO₂(110) and that the barrier for C—H bond cleavage via H-transfer to an O_(br) atom is only 38 kJ/mol. According to the calculations C₂H₆ dehydrogenation to produce C₂H₅—Ir_(cus) and HO_(br) species is exothermic by about 97 kJ/mol, and the barrier for reaction is significantly lower than the binding energy of the adsorbed C₂H₆ complex (38 vs. 107 kJ/mol). We find that DFT-PBE calculations without dispersion corrections underestimate the C₂H₆ binding energy on IrO₂(110), but still predict that the C₂H₆ dissociation barrier is lower than the desorption barrier (Table 1). Our calculations thus predict that C₂H₆ C—H bond cleavage is strongly favored over molecular desorption on clean IrO₂(110) such that all adsorbed C₂H₆ molecules will dissociate at low temperature, provided that O_(br) atoms are available for reaction. This prediction agrees well with our experimental finding that C₂H₆ dissociates on IrO₂(110) with near unit probability at low C₂H₆ coverages (FIG. 2 ).

We find that the adsorbed C₂H₅ group on IrO₂(110) can also dehydrogenate by a low energy pathway wherein the CH₃ group transfers a H-atom to an O_(br) atom, resulting in an adsorbed C₂H₄ species and a HO_(br) group located in the opposing row from the initial HO_(br) group (FIG. 4A). DFT-D3 predicts an energy barrier of 52 kJ/mol for this reaction and an exothermicity of 75 kJ/mol. The barrier for C₂H₅ dehydrogenation is relatively low because the CH₃ group maintains a H—Ir_(cus) dative interaction that weakens one of the C—H bonds. The C₂H₄ product adopts a bidentate geometry in which a C—Ir_(cus) 6-bond forms at each CH₂ group (i.e., di-σ configuration). Our calculations predict that the C₂H₄ species needs to overcome a barrier of 189 kJ/mol to desorb vs. a barrier of 68 kJ/mol to dehydrogenate via H-transfer to an O_(br) atom, affording an adsorbed C₂H₃ species and a third HO_(br) group. The calculations thus predict that C₂H₄ dehydrogenation is strongly favored over C₂H₄ desorption when O_(br) atoms are available to serve as H-atom acceptors. This prediction is consistent with our experimental observation that C₂H₆ oxidation occurs preferentially over C₂H₄ production at low initial C₂H₆ and HO_(br) coverages.

FIG. 4B shows the computed pathway for C₂H₆ dehydrogenation on IrO₂(110) when two of the four accessible O_(br) atoms are initially hydrogenated to HO_(br) groups. For these calculations, we hydrogenated O_(br) atoms located in opposing rows, with each next to a different CH₃ group of the C₂H₆ complex (FIG. 4B). Our calculations predict that hydrogenation of the two O_(br) atoms destabilizes the C₂H₆ σ-complex on IrO₂(110) by about 22 kJ/mol. We have recently reported that the hydrogenation of O_(br) atoms also destabilizes H₂ complexes on IrO₂(110).¹¹ Our calculations also predict that the energy barriers are nearly the same for C₂H₆ and C₂H₅ dehydrogenation on the initially clean IrO₂(110) vs. pre-hydrogenated IrO₂(110)-2HO_(br) surfaces when reaction occurs by H-transfer to an O_(br) atom (FIGS. 4A, 4B).

Sequential dehydrogenation of C₂H₆ to C₂H₄ on the initial IrO₂(110)-2HO_(br) surface converts all four of the accessible O_(br) atoms to HO_(br) groups, and causes C₂H₄ desorption to become favored over further dehydrogenation because HO_(br) groups are much less reactive than O_(br) atoms. The energy barrier for C₂H₄ dehydrogenation via H-transfer to a HO_(br) group is 152 kJ/mol, compared with 68 kJ/mol for C₂H₄ dehydrogenation to an O_(br) atom. In addition, the reverse reaction features an energy barrier of only 5 kJ/mol so the H₂O_(br) species would rapidly transfer a H-atom to C₂H₃ to regenerate the adsorbed C₂H₄ and HO_(br) species. Our DFT calculations thus indicate that C₂H₄ desorption is favored over dehydrogenation when all of the accessible O_(br) atoms are hydrogenated to HO_(br). This prediction agrees well with our experimental findings that pre-hydrogenation of IrO₂(110) promotes the conversion of C₂H₆ to C₂H₄ while suppressing C₂H₆ oxidation, and that C₂H₄ production begins to occur on initially clean IrO₂(110) only at moderate initial C₂H₆ coverages.

Structure of the s-IrO₂(110) Layer on Ir(100)

Bulk crystalline IrO₂ has a tetragonal unit cell with Ir atoms surrounded by an octahedral arrangement of six oxygen atoms and each oxygen atom is coordinated with three Ir atoms resulting in a trigonal plane. FIG. 5 shows a top and side view of the stoichiometrically-terminated IrO₂(110) surface. The IrO₂(110) surface unit cell is rectangular with dimensions of a=3.16 Å and b=6.36 Å, where a and b are parallel to the [001] and [110] directions of the IrO₂ crystal, respectively. The unit cell dimensions may also be expressed as a a=1.16x and b=2.34x, where x=2.72 Å is the lattice constant of Ir(100). The IrO₂(110) surface consists of alternating rows of O_(br) and Ir_(cus) that align along the [001] direction. Each of these surface species has one dangling bond due to a decrease in coordination in comparison to bulk IrO₂.

Measurement of Product Yields

We estimate atomic oxygen coverages by scaling integrated O₂ TPD spectra with those obtained from a saturated (2×1)—O layer containing 0.50 ML of O-atoms and prepared by exposing the Ir(100)-(5×1) surface to O₂ in UHV.²⁷ To estimate hydrogen coverages, we scaled integrated hydrogen desorption spectra by an integrated TPD spectrum collected from a saturated Ir(100)-(5×1)-H layer containing 0.80 ML of atomic hydrogen that we prepared by adsorbing hydrogen to saturation on the Ir(100)-(5×1) surface at 300 K.²⁸ We performed TPRS experiments of CO oxidation on saturated 0-covered Ir(100) to estimate the CO₂ desorption yields. Specifically, we collected O₂ and CO₂ TPRS spectra after exposing a (2×1)—O layer to a sub-saturation dose of CO and assuming that the CO₂ yield is equal to the difference between the initial (0.50 ML) and final coverages of oxygen as determined from the O₂ TPRS yield. To estimate CO desorption yields, we scaled integrated CO desorption spectra by an integrated TPD spectrum collected from a saturated c(2×2) layer containing 0.50 ML of CO that we prepare by adsorbing CO to saturation on Ir(100)-(1×1) at 300 K.^(27,29,30)

We performed TPRS experiments of hydrogen oxidation on partially O-covered Ir(100) to estimate the water desorption yields. In these experiments, we first collected O₂ and CO₂ TPRS spectra after exposing a (2×1)—O layer to a sub-saturation dose of CO and assuming that the oxygen remaining on Ir(100) is equal to the difference between the initial oxygen coverage in the (2×1)—O layer (0.50 ML) and the CO₂ yield determined from the CO₂ TPRS spectrum. We then collected O₂ and H₂O TPRS spectra after exposing the partially 0-covered Ir(100) surface generated from the first step to a saturation dose of hydrogen and assuming that the water yield is equal to the difference between the initial and finial coverage of oxygen determined from the O₂ TPRS yield. We repeat these calibration TPRS experiments to ensure accuracy in our estimates of desorption yields. We estimate C₂H₆ and C₂H₄ coverages by scaling the intensity-to-coverage conversion factors determined for CO with relative sensitivity factors reported for the mass spectrometric detection of these gases.

TPRS Spectra as a Function of the C₂H₆ Coverage on IrO₂(110)

FIGS. 6A-6D show TPRS spectra of mass fragments m/z=27, 28, 29 and 44 obtained as a function of the initial C₂H₆ coverage generated on IrO₂(110) at 90 K. The mass-fragment TPRS spectra clearly illustrate the TPRS features that arise from C₂H₆, C₂H₄ and CO because these species desorb in well-separated temperature ranges. We deconvoluted selected mass-fragment TPRS spectra to generate the TPRS spectra for C₂H₆, C₂H₄ and CO that we report in FIG. 1 . This deconvolution involves first subtracting the m/z=29 spectrum from the m/z=27 spectrum after rescaling the m/z=29 spectrum so that the intensities of the TPRS peaks below 250 K are equal in the m/z=29 and 27 spectra. This step removes the C₂H₆ contribution from the m/z=27 spectrum and generates a TPRS spectrum for only C₂H₄. We obtain a CO TPRS spectrum by first subtracting the C₂H₆ contribution from the m/z=28 spectrum, and then subtracting the C₂H₄ contribution as obtained from the corrected m/z=27 spectrum.

As discussed in the example above, the TPRS spectra demonstrate that CO and CO₂ production dominates at low C₂H₆ coverage and that the corresponding CO and CO₂ TPRS peaks are nearly saturated once the initial C₂H₆ coverage increases to ˜0.15 ML. Ethylene desorption becomes evident at an initial C₂H₆ coverage of ˜0.1 ML and the C₂H₄ TPRS feature intensifies with increasing coverage thereafter until saturating at an initial C₂H₆ coverage of ˜0.30 ML. We attribute the C₂H₆ TPRS feature at 150-185 K to strongly-bound C₂H₆ σ-complexes and estimate that this feature saturates when the total C₂H₆ coverage reaches 0.30 ML. The C₂H₆ TPRS peak at ˜110 K intensifies slowly as the initial C₂H₆ coverage increases to ˜0.30 ML and saturates at a yield of only about 0.025 ML, consistent with a minority species. A separate C₂H₆ TPRS peak at ˜120 K intensifies sharply with increasing C₂H₆ coverage above 0.30 ML, and is consistent with C₂H₆ adsorbed on O_(b) sites of IrO₂(110) based on similar behavior observed during C₂H₆ adsorption on RuO₂(110) and TiO₂(110).^(31,20)

TPRS spectra from C₂H₄ on IrO₂(110)

FIGS. 7A and 7B show TPRS spectra obtained after exposing IrO₂(110) to 0.8 and 1.5 L of C₂H₄ at 90 K, where the 1.5 L exposure causes saturation of the desorption features above 150 K. A fraction of the adsorbed C₂H₄ oxidizes and produces CO, CO₂ and H₂O that desorb in TPRS features above 400 K, where these features are nearly identical to those observed during our TPRS experiments with C₂H₆ as described in the present disclosure. The sharp C₂H₄ TPRS peak at 111 K arises from weakly-bound C₂H₄ molecules that are likely associated with the O_(b) atoms of IrO₂(110) or a minority surface phase. We attribute the broad C₂H₄ TPRS feature between ˜150 and 500 K to C₂H₄ adsorbed strongly on the Ir_(cus) atoms. At the lower coverage, a distinct C₂H₄ TPRS peak is evident at 450 K. This feature appears as a shoulder at higher coverage and the C₂H₄ desorption rate remains nearly constant between 200 and 400 K. Ethylene adsorption on RuO₂(110) also produces a broad C₂H₄ TPRS feature.³² We suggest that the significant breadth of the C₂H₄ TPRS feature reflects a sensitivity of the C₂H₄ binding energy to the local environment, including the coverage of C₂H₄ molecules, HO_(br) groups and C₂H₄-derived species that serve as intermediates to CO_(x) formation.

Configurations of C₂H₆ Adsorbed on IrO₂(110) as Predicted with DFT

FIGS. 8A-8D show the four configurations for ethane adsorbed on IrO₂(110) that we identified with DFT. Pham and co-workers report that the eclipsed configuration shown in FIG. 8B is the most stable configuration of C₂H₆ on IrO₂(110),²² but we find that the staggered ethane configuration with interactions of the two CH₃ groups with O_(br) atoms in opposite rows is more favorable by 9.3 (8.4) kJ/mol with PBE (PBE-D3).

Comparison ofDFT-PBE Results with and without Dispersion-Corrections

DFT-D3 DFT DFT-D3- (PBE) (PBE) DFT E E_(f) E E_(f) ΔE Structure (kJ/mol) (kJ/mol) (kJ/mol) (kJ/mol) (kJ/mol) C₂H₆ + 4O_(br) −107.3  −53.7 −53.6 (C₂H₆ + 4O_(br))*  −69.4  37.9  −10.5  43.2 −58.9 C₂H₅ + 3O_(br)/HO_(br) −204.5 −149.4 −55.1 (C₂H₅ + 3O_(br)/HO_(br))* −152.2  52.3  −93.9  55.5 −58.3 C₂H₄ + 2O_(br)/2HO_(br) −279.6 −224.1 −55.5 (C₂H₄(g) +  −90.9 188.7  −81.6 142.5  −9.3 2O_(br)/2HO_(br))* (C₂H₄ + 2O_(br)/2HO_(br))* −211.7  67.9 −152.8  71.3 −58.9 C₂H₃ + O_(br)/3HO_(br) −298.3 −238.7 −59.6

Table 1 shows energies and energy barriers computed for the adsorption and sequential dehydrogenation of C₂H₆ on IrO₂(110) using DFT-PBE with (DFT-D3) and without (DFT) dispersion corrections. The energies determined using DFT-D3 are greater than those computed using DFT by a similar amount of 57.1±2.3 kJ/mol for each structure that includes an adsorbed hydrocarbon species derived from C₂H₆. The DFT-D3 calculations using the PBE functional overestimate the binding energies of C₂H₆ and C₂H₄ on IrO₂(110) determined from our TPRS data, to an extent that is similar to our previous results for CH₄ and H₂ adsorbed on IrO₂(110).^(10, 11) Calculations using other dispersion-corrected functionals also overestimate the binding energy of C₂H₆ on IrO₂(110).²² From TPD, we estimate a binding energy of about 65 kJ/mol for the C₂H₆ σ-complex on IrO₂(110), whereas DFT-D3 predicts a value of 107 kJ/mol for C₂H₆ adsorbed on clean IrO₂(110). Similarly, the C₂H₄ TPRS feature from 300 to 450 K suggests a C₂H₄ binding energy on IrO₂(110) between about 130 and 165 kJ/mol, while DFT-D3 predicts of a binding energy of 189 kJ/mol. Our DFT calculations without dispersion slightly underestimate the C₂H₆ binding energy on IrO₂(110) (54 vs. 65 kJ/mol), and the computed C₂H₄ binding energy falls within the wide range estimated experimentally. Notably, our DFT-PBE calculations without dispersion predict facile C₂H₆ C—H bond cleavage on IrO₂(110) and support the conclusion that C₂H₆ conversion to C₂H₄ is favored over oxidation on partially-hydrogenated IrO₂(110). Although our DFT calculations support the main conclusions of this study, the overbinding predicted by current dispersion-corrected DFT methods signals a need for further development of exchange-correlation functionals that can accurately predict molecular binding on IrO₂(110).

Discussion

Our results show that C₂H₆ activation is highly facile on IrO₂(110) at temperatures below 200 K, and that further dehydrogenation produces C₂H₄ that desorbs between 300 and 450 K. Based on comparison with reference TPRS data (SI), we conclude that C₂H₄ desorption is the rate-limiting step in the conversion of C₂H₆ to C₂H₄ on IrO₂(110) during TPRS. Our DFT calculations support these conclusions as they predict that the barrier for C₂H₆ C—H bond cleavage on clean IrO₂(110) is lower than that for C₂H₄ desorption by at least 100 kJ/mol. Indeed, we find that the IrO₂(110) surface is exceptionally active in promoting alkane C—H bond cleavage—we estimate a barrier between 35 and 40 kJ/mol for ethane activation on IrO₂(110), and our prior work reveals an even lower barrier of 28 kJ/mol for CH₄ activation on IrO₂(110).¹⁰ In fact, our DFT results predict that initial C—H bond cleavage has the lowest barrier among the reaction steps involved in C₂H₆ conversion to C₂H₄ on IrO₂(110).

In contrast to IrO₂(110), initial C—H bond activation is the rate-determining step in the ODH of alkanes on most other oxides. Supported vanadium-oxide based catalysts have been widely studied due to their favorable performance in promoting the ODH of ethane and propane.^(1, 9) While the specific values can depend on multiple factors, barriers for ethane C—H bond cleavage on VO_(x)-based catalysts lie in a range from about 120 to 150 kJ/mol,^(5,25-26) and reactors are operated at temperatures between 700 and 900 K to achieve optimal rates and selectivity of alkene production from ethane and propane.² According to DFT, ethylene desorption is the rate-determining step for the conversion of C₂H₆ to C₂H₄ on IrO₂(110) under TPRS conditions because the dehydrogenation of adsorbed C₂H₆ and C₂H₅ groups are both facile processes on clean IrO₂(110) and the C₂H₄ product binds strongly. From our TPRS data, we estimate that the barrier for C₂H₄ desorption from IrO₂(110) lies between about 130 and 165 kJ/mol, and is thus close to the values reported for C₂H₆ C—H activation barriers on VO_(x)-based catalysts. However, since the entropy of activation is much larger for C₂H₄ desorption compared with ethane activation, C₂H₄ desorbs from IrO₂(110) at lower temperature relative to the temperatures at which VO_(x)-based catalysts would achieve comparable rates of ethane conversion to ethylene.

Our TPRS results show that the desorption of ethylene from IrO₂(110) occurs at lower temperature during TPRS than the reaction-limited desorption of H₂O and CO_(x) species resulting from ethane oxidation (FIGS. 1A-1B). A possible implication is that low temperature operation can enable IrO₂ catalysts to promote the conversion of ethane to ethylene at high rates while minimizing CO_(x) production. However, the higher desorption temperature of H₂O compared with C₂H₄ suggests that H₂O desorption could be a rate-controlling step in the IrO₂-promoted conversion of C₂H₆ to C₂H₄ under steady-state conditions. While further study is needed, our results suggest possibilities for achieving efficient and selective conversion of ethane to ethylene at low temperature using IrO₂-based catalysts.

Our results also demonstrate that partial hydrogenation of the IrO₂(110) surface enhances ethane conversion to ethylene while suppressing extensive oxidation to CO_(x) species. We find that HO_(br) groups are significantly less active than O_(br) atoms as H-atom acceptors, and, as a result, hydrogenating a fraction of the O_(br) atoms limits the extent to which adsorbed hydrocarbons can dehydrogenate and causes C₂H₄ desorption to become favored over further dehydrogenation and extensive oxidation. This behavior provides a viable explanation of the evolution of TPRS product yields with increasing C₂H₆ coverage. At low C₂H₆ coverage enough O_(br) atoms are available to allow each C₂H₆ molecule to extensively dehydrogenate, and produce intermediates that oxidize to CO_(x) species with further heating. With increasing C₂H₆ coverage, the extent to which C₂H₆ molecules dehydrogenate becomes limited because a larger fraction of O_(br) atoms convert to HO_(br) groups and deactivate. Consistent with this interpretation, our experiments demonstrate that the selectivity toward ethane conversion to ethylene can be enhanced by partially hydrogenating the IrO₂(110) surface prior to adsorbing ethane. This finding may have broad implications for developing methods by which to modify the selectivity of IrO₂ catalysts. In particular, our results demonstrate that controllably deactivating a fraction of the reactive O-atoms of IrO₂ is an effective approach for promoting the partial dehydrogenation of ethane over extensive oxidation.

Summary

We investigated the dehydrogenation of ethane on the stoichiometric IrO₂(110) surface using TPRS and DFT calculations. Our results show that ethane forms strongly-bound σ-complexes on IrO₂(110) and that a large fraction of the adsorbed complexes undergo C—H bond cleavage below 200 K during TPRS. Our DFT calculations predict that ethane 6-complexes on IrO₂(110) dissociate by a heterolytic mechanism involving H-atom transfer to a neighboring O_(br) atom, and that the barrier for C—H bond cleavage is lower than the binding energy of the C₂H₆ σ-complex. We find that the resulting ethyl groups react with the IrO₂(110) surface via oxidation to CO_(x) species and H₂O as well as dehydrogenation to C₂H₄, with the C₂H₄ product desorbing between 300 and 450 K. Both DFT calculations and TPRS experiments show that C₂H₄ desorption is the rate-limiting step in the conversion of C₂H₆ to C₂H₄ on IrO₂(110) during TPRS. Our experimental results demonstrate that partially hydrogenating the IrO₂(110) surface enhances the conversion of ethane to ethylene while suppressing ethane oxidation to CO_(x) species. According to DFT, converting a fraction of the O_(br) atoms to HO_(br) groups causes C₂H₄ desorption to become favored over further dehydrogenation because HO_(br) groups are poor H-atom acceptors compared to O_(br) atoms. Our findings reveal that the IrO₂(110) surface exhibits an unusual ability to promote the dehydrogenation of ethane to ethylene near room temperature during TPRS, and demonstrate that controlled deactivation of O_(br) atoms is an effective way to promote ethylene production from ethane on IrO₂(110).

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Ratios, concentrations, amounts, and other numerical data may be expressed in a range format. It is to be understood that such a range format is used for convenience and brevity, and should be interpreted in a flexible manner to include not only the numerical values explicitly recited as the limits of the range, but also to include all the individual numerical values or sub-ranges encompassed within that range as if each numerical value and sub-range is explicitly recited. To illustrate, a concentration range of “about 0.1% to about 5%” should be interpreted to include not only the explicitly recited concentration of about 0.1% to about 5%, but also include individual concentrations (e.g., 1%, 2%, 3%, and 4%) and the sub-ranges (e.g., 0.5%, 1.1%, 2.2%, 3.3%, and 4.4%) within the indicated range. In an embodiment, the term “about” can include traditional rounding according to significant figure of the numerical value. In addition, the phrase “about ‘x’ to ‘y’” includes “about ‘x’ to about ‘y’”.

Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this disclosure belongs. Although any methods and materials similar or equivalent to those described can also be used in the practice or testing of the present disclosure, the preferred methods and materials are now described.

Embodiments of the present disclosure will employ, unless otherwise indicated, techniques of separating, testing, and constructing materials, which are within the skill of the art. Such techniques are explained fully in the literature.

It should be emphasized that the above-described embodiments are merely examples of possible implementations. Many variations and modifications may be made to the above-described embodiments without departing from the principles of the present disclosure. All such modifications and variations are intended to be included herein within the scope of this disclosure and protected by the following claims. 

The invention claimed is:
 1. A method of converting a base gas to a first gas, comprising: exposing the base gas to an IrO₂-based catalyst, and forming the first gas, wherein the base gas is an alkane, wherein the first gas comprises an alkene, an alkyne, an alcohol, an aldehyde, or a combination thereof; wherein the IrO₂-based catalyst has the formula of Ir_(x)M_(y)O_(z) or Ir_(x)O_(y)X_(z) wherein M is selected from Ru, Ti, Re, Nb, Ta, Os, Pt, Pd, Cu, Ag, Au, Rh, Cr, Mn, Ni, Fe, Co, and a combination thereof, where X is selected from F, Cl, Br, I, S, Se, Te, and a combination thereof, wherein for Ir_(x)M_(y)O_(z) y is greater than 0, z is between 1 and 2 and x+y≤1 and wherein for Ir_(x)O_(y)X_(z) X is present and X is an element that replaces a fraction of the O-atoms in the anion sub-lattice, and wherein for Ir_(x)O_(y)X_(z) x≤1 and y+z is between 1 and
 2. 2. The method of claim 1, further comprising prehydrogenation of the IrO₂-based catalyst prior to exposing the alkane to the IrO₂-based catalyst; wherein prehydrogenation comprises adsorbing hydrogen onto a surface of the IrO₂-based catalyst to convert at least a portion of oxygen to OH.
 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the alkane is a C1 to C5 alkane.
 4. The method of claim 1, wherein the first gas comprises a C1 to C5 alkene, a C1 to C5 alkyne, a C1 to C5 alcohol, a C1 to C5 aldehyde, or a combination thereof.
 5. The method of claim 1, wherein exposing comprises exposing the alkane to the IrO₂-based catalyst at a temperature of about 200 to 400 K.
 6. The method of claim 1, wherein the IrO₂-based catalyst comprises IrO₂ deposited onto a support.
 7. The method of claim 6, wherein the support is an oxide support selected from SiO₂, Al₂O₃, TiO₂, MgO, CaO, CeO₂, zeolites, and a combination thereof.
 8. The method of claim 6, wherein the support is a non-oxide support.
 9. The method of claim 1, wherein the base gas is ethane, and the first gas is ethylene.
 10. The method of claim 1, wherein the base gas is methane and the first gas comprises ethylene, methanol, formaldehyde, or a combination thereof.
 11. A method of converting a base gas to a first gas, comprising: exposing the base gas to an IrO₂-based catalyst, and forming the first gas, wherein the base gas is an alkane, wherein the first gas comprises an alkene, an alkyne, an alcohol, an aldehyde, or a combination thereof; wherein the IrO₂-based catalyst has the formula of Ir_(x)M_(y)O_(z) or Ir_(x)O_(y)X_(z) wherein M is selected from Ru, Ti, Re, Nb, Ta, Os, Pt, Pd, Cu, Ag, Au, Rh, Cr, Mn, Ni, Fe, Co, and a combination thereof, where X is selected from F, Cl, Br, I, S, Se, Te, and a combination thereof, wherein for Ir_(x)M_(y)O_(z) y is greater than 0, z is between 1 and 2 and x+y≤1 and wherein for Ir_(x)O_(y)X_(z) x≤1 and y+z is between 1 and 2; and prehydrogenation of the IrO₂-based catalyst prior to exposing the alkane to the IrO₂-based catalyst; wherein prehydrogenation comprises adsorbing hydrogen onto a surface of the IrO₂-based catalyst to convert at least a portion of oxygen to OH.
 12. The method of claim 11, wherein the alkane is a C1 to C5 alkane.
 13. The method of claim 11, wherein the first gas comprises a C1 to C5 alkene, a C1 to C5 alkyne, a C1 to C5 alcohol, a C1 to C5 aldehyde, or a combination thereof.
 14. The method of claim 11, wherein exposing comprises exposing the alkane to the IrO₂-based catalyst at a temperature of about 200 to 400 K.
 15. The method of claim 11, wherein the IrO₂-based catalyst comprises IrO₂ deposited onto a support.
 16. The method of claim 15, wherein the support is an oxide support selected from SiO₂, Al₂O₃, TiO₂, MgO, CaO, CeO₂, zeolites, and a combination thereof.
 17. The method of claim 15, wherein the support is a non-oxide support.
 18. The method of claim 11, wherein the base gas is ethane, and the first gas is ethylene.
 19. The method of claim 11, wherein the base gas is methane and the first gas comprises ethylene, methanol, formaldehyde, or a combination thereof. 